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[1] The irrigated Indus Basin in Pakistan has insufficient water resources to supply all its stakeholders. Information on evaporative depletion across the Basin is an important requirement if the water resources are to be managed efficiently. This paper presents the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) method used to compute actual evapotranspiration for large areas based on public domain National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellite data. Computational procedures for retrieving actual evapotranspiration from satellites have been developed over the last 20 years. The current work is among the first applications used to estimate actual evapotranspiration on an annual scale across a vast river basin system with a minimum of ground data.

Only sunshine duration and wind speed are required as input data for the remote sensing flux algorithm. The results were validated in the Indus Basin by comparing results from a field‐scale transient moisture flow model, in situ Bowen ratio measurements, and residual water balance analyses for an area of 3 million ha. The accuracy of assessing time‐integrated actual annual evapotranspiration varied from 0% to 10% on a field scale to 5% at the regional level. Spatiotemporal information on actual evapotranspiration helps to evaluate water distribution and water use between large irrigation project areas.

Wide variations in evaporative depletion between project areas and crop types were found. Satellite‐based measurements can provide such information and avoid the need to rely on field databases. Introduction [2] The demand for water exceeds its availability in several of the world's large river basins.

To determine appropriate water balances and understand who actually uses the water, it is becoming increasingly important to study aerial patterns of evaporative depletion in the rural parts of river basins. A river basin typically contains irrigated agriculture, rainfed agriculture, forests, native vegetation, wetlands, and includes other systems that all transmit water into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. Digital maps of land use and evaporative water use can show the depletion of water resources. These can be used to study the severity of water shortages and inequities in water use for upstream to downstream. [3] Information on water use through evapotranspiration in rural areas is not so commonly available as data on land use and water supply.

A classical solution to this problem is the application of distributed hydrological models [e.g.,; ]. The evapotranspiration computations in these models depend substantially on the quality of the input data, particularly that on soil and vegetation physical properties, and on the hydrological boundary conditions. It takes considerable efforts to collect all the required input data and to calibrate distributed hydrological models [ ] for a river basin as huge as the Indus System (16 million ha).

Techniques are, however, necessary to diagnose where and how much water has been used without becoming dependent on complex and data‐demanding simulation models. Satellite remote sensing is widely applied to map crop types, land cover, and land use on a regional scale. This paper describes a study made to diagnose the water use patterns in the Indus Basin that was part of an overall initiative to determine the agricultural and environmental performance of the Indus Basin Irrigation System. [4] Evapotranspiration mapping from multiple satellite measurements is an expanding research field. The first results were reported in the 1970s [e.g.,;, ] and continued in the 1980s [e.g.,; ]. Despite progress [see for a review], there are few reports of regional‐scale applications used to determine water budgets for long periods.

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The major difficulty is that most remote sensing evapotranspiration algorithms require too much input data on, for example, net radiation, air temperature, and aerodynamic resistances. This paper describes a scientifically justified procedure that overcomes these practical constraints by using the concept of evaporative fraction and surface energy balances for complete cropping seasons. Study Area and Climate [5] The Indus contains more than 16 million ha of irrigated land and is one of the largest contiguous irrigation systems in the world. It is in Pakistan where the climate is semiarid to arid, with monsoons occurring from July to September. Wheat and fodder are the dominant crops during the dry rabi (winter) season. Among other crops, cotton, rice, maize, sugarcane and fodder are produced during the wet kharif (summer) season. The large rural population of the Indus Basin is directly involved in agriculture, which is important to the economy of the region.